History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

History - Essay Example In this essay I will attempt an outline of five of the earliest religions that are known including those of Ancient Greece and India, the early Islamic religion and the early religious views of Africa. However, to begin I will examine the religious views of the early Chinese civilization. In fact, in the early Chinese civilization there are said to have existed three separate doctrines. These doctrines were Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. The religions of Christianity and Islam are said not to have reached this region until the 7th century A.D. The ideas of Taoism are said to have originated in the 6th century B.C and were founded upon the thought of a man named Lao Tzu (although there are many who believe this man is purely a mythical figure). In reality, while Taoism can be viewed in terms of religious practice, it is essentially more of a system of philosophical thought. It is based on a few simple principles which include the belief that there is a kind of universal 'life-forc e' that is inherent in all things. Therefore, respecting and caring for all things is a vital element within this system, and individuals are duly encouraged not to use force but should rather be prepared to compromise and have faith in more natural forces. 2 Around a century later, Confucius (551-479 B.C) reacted somewhat against the teachings of Taoism and set about creating his own system that became known as Confucianism. Again, it can be argued that this system, while it is generally considered as a Religion of China, is in reality more focused on both political and social morality. Nevertheless, Confucianism was to become enormously influential, especially during the Han Dynasty that ruled from 206 B.C. until 220 A.D. In simple terms, this doctrine asserts that people should remain faithful to both their rulers and their Gods and that humbly carrying out their duties is the way to peace and happiness. Let us now move across the map and look at the religious views of Ancient Gr eece. In fact, the original motivation behind the religious views of the Ancient Greeks lay in a reaction against the 'gloomy' religion of Ancient Egypt. In addition, we find there is a fundamental difference between the religion of Greece and many others (including the above Religions of China) and that is the fact that it was not founded by any one figure and had neither sacred scriptures nor system of priestly hierarchies. The religious views of this country were in fact not limited to faith or belief but were rather focused on incorporating a positive practice into the quotidian life of its inhabitants. This is mainly due to the fact that the Greek gods were largely based on the image of man, and were little different with regards to character from man himself. For certain, the gods were seen as both stronger and more intelligent than mere mortals, but neither holy nor omnipotent. Therefore, man was regarded as their spiritual equal. 3 In particular, the people of Ancient Greece are said to have taken great joy in participating in the practice of looking into the future and thereby attempting to predict its outcome. For this reason the so-called 'oracles' were both much revered and respected. Of all the known oracles, the oracle known as Delphi was said to be the most revered of all. Delphi was in fact considered to be something of a 'center' for the earth and thus was consulted often with regards to matters of earthly significance. In fact, the

Religion and the Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Religion and the Media - Essay Example Whereas the framework of television as a gathering place is characterized by limitations, it is, however, suitable for this research and will be helpful in interpreting the material. Television as a place of gathering means that it is considered a hemmed in system in which figurative interaction between people takes place. When talking about television as a place of gathering, one considers two main things. First, one must first consider its integration with the society; secondly, one must consider it as a source of meaning (Lotz 3). As an integration with the society, the television has a place in the society and people must watch it if they need to access information. The television is also a source of meaning because it enables human beings to understand events as they occur in the natural world. These two main aspects help us in understanding that television is largely a place that does not have any specific location. Religion, thus, capitalizes on the theoretical framework of television as a gathering place to reach out to people from different parts of the world. Television as a gathering place is more suitable to explain the relationship between religion and media. It is a good fit for this research as it helps to show or indicate how the media presents religion. It also helps in explaining why, televangelism has continued to grow by day. The main aim of televangelism is to reach out to as many people as possible (Clarke 618). There are few chances of survival of Christianity if it lacks popularity. Christianity, for example, aims to reach to those people who live in countries where churches have been banned and Christianity is outlawed. In order to reach out to many people, Christians or missionaries turned to television as a place to spread religion. The television has a wide coverage because it reaches vast populations over a short period of time. All people in the

Theoretical Framework Essay Example for Free

Theoretical Framework Essay Self- efficacy and perceived self-proficiency Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory is based on the concept that individuals possess a self-system that enables them to exercise a measure of control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions.   He defines this self-system as housing the individuals’ cognitive and affective structures which includes the abilities to symbolize, learn from others, plan strategies, regulate ones own behavior, and engage in self- reflection.   Bandura believes that through self-reflection, individuals could evaluate their own experiences and thought processes.    Bandura (1986) stresses that self-reflection is the most critical human capability.   Through self-reflection, individuals evaluate and change their own thinking and behavior.   Some of these evaluations include the perceptions of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s own capabilities to organize and initiate courses of behavior necessary to achieve specific types of performances. Bandura further elaborated on the belief that perceived self-proficiency could affect behavior in several ways.   Individuals may be influenced in the courses of action they undertake. He believed that individuals may only participate in tasks in which they feel confident and competent.   In contrast, they often avoid those tasks in which they feel unsuccessful.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to Pajares (1996), self-efficacy beliefs could determine how much effort individuals will invest in an activity, how long they will persevere when confronting obstacles, and how resilient they are in adverse situations.   There exists a direct relationship among two sets of variables where the higher the self- efficacy, the greater is the effort, persistence, and resilience. In addition, self- efficacy beliefs could influence individuals’ emotions and thought patterns.   An individual with low self-efficacy could believe that things are more difficult than they really are.   This is a belief state of mind that could contribute to depression, stress, and a limited vision of how to best solve an issue.   On the other hand, high self-efficacy could contribute to an individuals feeling of confidence and serenity in approaching problematic tasks and activities (Bandura 1986; Pajares 1996).   Moreover, according to Bandura, an individuals self- efficacy beliefs are strong determinants and predictors of the level of accomplishment that one may attain.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In consonance with this, online art students are individuals possessing this self-system that Bandura was referring to. Their self-systems could pave the way for an introspection of one’s self. This self-reflection is a means for the students to evaluate their selves and this self-evaluation made by the students are the basis for behavioral changes towards improvement. When done in the educational setting, the students could use this self-system in reflecting with regard to their self-efficacy and self-proficiency. This would direct and pinpoint the strong and weak points of the students and the factors that keep them continuing in an educational endeavor or activity. Adult online art students would need to have the chance to review their set of characteristics such as self-efficacy. As stated above, this activity would pinpoint their strong and weak points and the identification of such would pave the way for reinforcement or reversal of certain behaviors. There might be some factors that would need to be reinforced or improved in the online courses and this would be identified based on the students’ self-efficacy beliefs. Motivations of adult learners   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The literature (Knowles 1995; Mezirow 1991; Rogers 1966) in adult education focuses on the distinct attributes of adults, which builds a rationale for practice based on those attributes. Knowles (1995) advocates that adults are autonomous, self-directed, and have unique needs and requirements as learners.   He also indicates that adults like to direct their own learning and are motivated by several factors:1) are attracted to the social relationships involved in learning; 2) want to create friendships and there is a need to foster interesting associations; 3)   have external expectations; 4) have a desire to comply with instructions from someone else; 5) want to fulfill the expectations of someone with formal authority; 6) want to be of service to the community;7) want to become connected and part of social networks;8) want to secure professional advancements or gain higher status in employment; 9) want to escape from boredom   and learning provides a break in the routine of their daily lives. Moreover, Knowles (1950) believes in informal education; that is education where the learning occurs in daily life and outside of formal school settings. Just the same, the adult students of the online art classes still possess practically the same motivations stated above. It can be noticed that the motivational factors presented here are not entirely in harmony with the elements of an online class. Transformative learning, best theorized by Mezirow (1991) suggests that the adult learner make changes through transforming personal perspectives. Mezirow believes that individuals could be transformed through the process of critical reflection and that changes which accelerate transformative learning are referred to as â€Å"disorienting dilemmas†. These are situations that fail to align with preconceived opinions. The dilemmas encourage critical reflection and guide the development of alternative paths of knowledge. The adult learner is given the chance to reflect on the attitudes, opinions and emotional responses that defined personal perceptions. Transformative learning can, thus, aid adult online art students in bringing about an act of contemplation within their personal perspectives of successes, barriers, and motivations with regard to the online art programs they take. As suggested by Mezirow, the change in personal perspectives can help in attaining necessary changes among the adult students in the educational setting. The theory of experiential learning, by Carl Rogers, evolved as a part of the humanistic education movement (Patterson, 1993; Valett, 1977). Rogers distinguishes two types of learning: cognitive and experiential. Cognitive learning corresponds to academic knowledge such as learning multiplication tables and vocabulary.   Experiential learning refers to an applied knowledge such as learning about sewing in order to make clothing. Rogers (1996) believes that a distinction between cognitive and experiential learning was that the learning addresses the means and desires of the learner.   The qualities of experiential learning are self-initiation, personal involvement, and evaluation by the learner and the pervasive effects on the learner. Rogers also feels that all human beings have the ability to learn and the role of the educator is to facilitate the learning. The educator’s responsibilities were to set a positive climate for learning, clarify the purposes for the learner, organize and make available learning resources, balance intellectual and emotional components of learning, and share thoughts with learners. However, an educator should avoid dominating the classroom.   Rogers (1996) states that real learning is facilitated when the learner participates in the learning process and has control over its direction. Also that it primarily is based upon direct application with practical, social, personal or research problems.   Moreover, self- evaluation is the main method of assessing progress or success. Indeed, the theme of self-evaluation by adult online art students remains to be the central focus of this theory. It is also to be emphasized that it is the adult online art students are the principal actors to whom the learning process should be directed. It is necessary that the inputs to the learning environment comes and directs to the learners, who are the adult online art students, and the teacher remains as a facilitator in the online classes. With the fact that they are the main actors here, they are also the ones who should reflect on the learning process and bring about the change. The teacher, as a facilitator would be the one to be the change agent. Both Rogers (1966) and Mezirow (1991) reflect Knowles’ ideas about informal education. Rogers’ (1966) approach to adult education focuses on relationships. He agrees with Knowles that adults want to create friendships and foster interesting associations. However, he believed that the facilitation of significant learning relied upon the attitudinal relationship of the facilitator and the learner. He also believes that it is impossible to teach another person directly—one could only really facilitate their learning.   Similarly, Mezirow (1991) recognizes that adults are autonomous and self-directed; however, he felt the adult learner needs to challenge their frames of reference by critically reflecting on their assumptions. Mezirow feels this is a critical step in the adults learning. Learning could change if the adult would implement ways to assess their beliefs or prior assumptions. With this, a line can be drawn in the path of the adult online art students. There is a relationship within the facilitator and the learner, who are the teacher and the adult online art student respectively. It is not possible to have a direct domination of the learning process of the adult online art students. There is a need for the adult online art students to evaluate on their current beliefs so as to gain a new perspective in the learning process.   Research by Csikszentmihalyi (1997) also explores motivation. He defines a â€Å"state of flow† as a condition of heightened focus, happiness and productivity that all individuals understand and hunger for. Csikszentmihalyi offers an interesting observation about what individuals believe makes them happy. What was discovered is that individuals are most happy and most productive while pursuing challenging activities. The majority of these activities are during work or pursuing a hobby.   Individuals who emerge from each flow state are more complex, self-confident, capable, and sensitive. The experience becomes its own reward. Moreover, in order to improve one’s life, one must improve the quality of the experience. Csikszentmihalyi believes the main advantage of flow is that it enabled adults to avoid psychic entropy or degeneration which could cause depression, dispiritedness and distraction. The adult online art students are motivated by different things. Generally, it can be said that these motivations come from the idea of being challenged with their online art programs. The very experience would serve as their means and their ends. In addition to this, what matters highly are the goals and experiences given and made by them to keep them going in the online art program. Intentions of adult learners One definition (Webster’s World dictionary 1998) of intention states that it is the reason, motive or purpose for ones actions. It is a determination to act in a specific way and on purpose. However, according to Davies (2006) this definition may be unfinished. Jackson (1994), Kuhl (1990) and McCarty and Siccone (2001) as cited by Davies (2006) believe that intention is an internal representation of a persons values, purposes, or commitment to a particular activity. In addition, intention includes willpower, persistence, determination, desire, effort, work ethic, mindfulness, striving, and focus. Rychlak (1997) adds that through intention individuals have the ability to choose specific actions. They also have specific intentions that can determine the effort and persistence with which they pursue those actions.  Ã‚   Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) add that actual learning behavior is more accurately predicted by a learner’s intent. Davies (2006) concludes that it is the learners’ intent that determines the effort expended and the quality of the learning achieved. Through self-reflection mentioned several times before, the adult online art students would be able to learn about their intentions as learners. The degree of the intensity of the intention also shows the effort that will be brought about by the learner in the learning process and in the online art programs. This would greatly affect their interest in their programs. Intention can be defined as an individuals commitment and will to learn what is expected of them when given a specific learning opportunity.   According to Bandura (2001) intention is the mental representation of commitment to learn which is separate from both from motivation and effort.   Learner intention can characterize an individual aims and values for participating in the learning activity. An individual’s capability to make accurate decisions may vary depending on aptitudes and abilities. Gardner (2006) makes the point that the ability to control oneself in this way is a category of intelligence.   Intrapersonal intelligence as Gardner expresses it, is the degree to which individuals are able to efficiently control motivational influences and accurately judge situations when making decisions and forming intent. Tyler (1995) notes that intentions which are associated with specific decisions are not always fixed.   Circumstances may change and motives can become reconsidered.   Certain individuals may have multiple intentions for multiple activities.   These can often compete for their time and attention.   According to Schunk and Zimmerman (1994) in learning environments where students are faced with conflicting intentions, compromises are made that are often situational.   Students who can self-regulate and prioritize specific learning goals are academically successful. Those who are unable can become unsuccessful. The online educational setting would provide the adult online art students conflicts with regard to their motivations, intentions, and personal perspectives. It is important for the adult online art students to be able to identify their main learning goals in vis-à  -vis their intentions and motivations in order for them to become successful in their online art programs. It is necessary for them to gain a full understanding of their personal perspectives and beliefs because these are the things which would pave the way for a successful academic setting. Success strategies and best practices Palloff and Pratt (2001) discuss successful strategies and principles of good practice for instructors in online undergraduate education. This includes, encouraging contact between students and faculty, developing cooperation among students, promoting the use of active learning techniques, and giving prompt feedback. Another good practice is to place an emphasis on communicating high expectations to all learners of diverse talent and learning styles. Palloff and Pratt (2001) believe that courses that encouraged interactivity are the key to a well constructed online course. It could be remembered that one of the motivations of the adult students is the interaction between the different stakeholders of the learning environment. Thus, the transformation of the online courses into an interactive one is a key step for the administrator and the teachers. The role of the student as the principal actor should be noted here because the adult online students should take a big part and should be considered in the redirection of the online class into an interactive one. Sales-Ciges (2001) separate the instructor’s role in the online classroom into three categories: social, intellectual, and organizational.   The instructor monitors the course content by tracking student’s activities, setting timelines, and introducing procedures.   The instructor also has the role of facilitator in discussions by providing students with feedback on discussion board responses.   Stolovitch and Keeps (1999) add that instructors need to understand how to foster human interaction in a virtual setting and to guide the students through their understanding of course materials. In addition, an instructor needs to promote students interactivity for communication, motivation, discovery and participation when presenting assignments.   Wiggins and TcTighe (2001) believe that the instructor should focus on the students understanding of the material and the ability to transfer the information into real life.   In addition, the assignments must be achievable and rewarding in order to keep the student motivated. In line with this, the teachers as facilitators in the online classes for adults should maintain its role as close as it is in the real setting. It should be as close to the real classroom environment and the adult online students should have all the necessary knowledge and skills to be able to put it into application. The maintenance of the real classroom environment and the ability to put it into application are motivations for the adult online art students. Barriers for completion The research (Mezirow 1991; Tough 1979) supports that adults have several barriers against participating in learning. Significant barriers include confidence, time, interest, money, scheduling, child care, transportation, and information about opportunities to learn. More importantly, less obvious barriers include their past experiences in acquiring new learning. Kennedy (2003) observes that adults have preconceived ways of thinking and this could cause a resistance to learning new information. The adult learners’ past experiences can be a barrier in gaining new learning. Crawford (2006) supports Kennedy’s belief about the adult learner. He notes that a resistance to learning new information can occur from past habits or old ways of thinking about a particular issue. He adds that the reason for this resistance in learning is that adults are often reserved about acquiring new knowledge, particularly if it is in direct contrast to what they believe. Similarly, the adult online art students bear the same difficulties with regard to learning, more so with a new environment which is the online classrooms for them. In addition to this, there are factors that prevent them from proceeding with the learning process as they take into consideration when they enroll and proceed with their online art programs. Motivations to continue According to Knowles (1980) adult learners are educated through life experiences. They gain their self-identity from their past experiences. If they cannot use those experiences or if those experiences are unacknowledged, they can feel rejected as an individual. Bandura (1986) also supported that if an individual perceived themselves as unable to accomplish a task, they would cease to participate in the task. In addition, Kennedy (2003) noted that the fear of failure an adult may bring to the classroom could bring on further rejection from their peer group.   Kennedy believes that past experiences could also be a handicap in acquiring new learning.    Adults sometimes have preconceived ways of thinking that are resistant to change.   Moreover, adult learners could be more reserved about new knowledge if it is in contrast to what they believe.  Ã‚   Lieb (1991) contends that how an adult uses their work provides a significant and important factor in self- identification. An important aspect of work that influences the adults motivations to learn has to do with job dissatisfaction. Changes in technology and other socio-economic factors could influence a great number of adults who change occupations over the course of their lives.   Adults are often motivated to acquire and update new skills for employment. To this, the motivations for the adult online art students are motivated by the environment within which learning occurs. This would also include their past experiences and how they use the things they learn from the online art programs. Palloff and Pratt (2003) support that online learning may require a high degree of motivation, self-directed learning, persistence, and commitment from the adult learner.   Many learners lack the required preparation for the demands of online learning in order to complete their programs. Retention (Frankola 2004) in distance education higher education is not a new subject; however the study of e-learning retention is a relatively new area for research. Most of the existing models (Tinto 1975; Bean 1980) of retention were built on the retention research of ground campuses and nontraditional learners. The field of retention for adult online art students remains an unknown one. It is also necessary to identify the preparedness of the adult online art students to the nature of the learning environment. This will provide them ample time to reflect and transform their personal perspectives and make them in parallel with the situations of the online art programs. The research (Frankola 2001) has shown that the reasons for dropping out of online education programs are multiple, interrelated and complex.   Students are most likely to leave an online program after they complete the first few courses. Few students decide to leave an online education program after they have several courses completed.   The students who persist in the early phases of the online program could be viewed as successful and are probably satisfied with their online learning experience in the program. The students who had issues adjusting to the online program or technology are likely to become frustrated in their first few courses. Taking the time and effort to putting forth the investment into the program could make the difference. The adult online art students who had the chance to reflect on their personal beliefs are the ones predicted to be more successful in their online classes. It is important that the adult online student feels motivated in the experiences and goals in the learning experience to keep them going. Martinez (2003) states that recent nontraditional attrition studies have considered the impact of psychological factors on persistence.   Bandura believes (1986) that some of these factors could be related to the learners’ self-efficacy in regard to self-proficiency. Other factors could have to do with learner intentions (Davies 2006), quality of instruction (Palloff Pratt 2003), and motivations to continue (Frankola 2004; Kennedy 2003). The level of persistence exuded by the students could be affected by several factors, which are important for the adult online art students. This, in consonance with the learning environment, could contribute to the success of the students and in the continuous endeavor in learning.

Effect of an Increase in Molar Mass on Enthalpy Change

Effect of an Increase in Molar Mass on Enthalpy Change An investigation to determine the effect of an increase in molar mass on the enthalpy change of combustion of fuels Method Variables: Independent Variable: Molar mass (type) of alcohol. Dependant Variable: The following variable will be observed and measured: * Mass of the alcohol used. Controlled Variable: The following variables will need to be controlled: * Mass of water, the mass of water will be measured using a measuring cylinder. * Amount of wick on burner, the amount of wick on the burner will be measured using a standard ruler and kept constant as it affects the amount of alcohol burnt. * Height of beaker above flame, the beaker will be set up so that the base just touches the flame. * Type of beaker, the same beaker will be used and marked, as the density and size of the beaker affect the amount of heat energy transferred to the water. * Agitation of the water, the water will need to be stirred in every experiment as to prevent any anomalous results. * Temperature change is held constant, measured with a thermometer reading from -10oC to 110oC, with an uncertainty of  ±0.5oC Method Procedure: 1. Measure 100cm3 of water in the measuring cylinder. 2. Pour the water into the 250cm3 beaker and record its temperature. 3. Choose a spirit burner. Record the name of the fuel, and the mass of the whole burner (including the lid and fuel inside). 4. Clamp the beaker, and set it up so that the spirit burner will fit comfortably under it. 5. Light the 6mm wick of the spirit burner, and put it under the 250 cm3 beaker. 6. Stir the water gently with the thermometer, and watch the temperature. When it has increased by 20 °C, put the lid on the spirit burner to put the flame out. 7. Record the new mass of the whole burner (including the lid and fuel inside). 8. Using fresh water each time, repeat the experiment at least twice with the same fuel. 9. Repeat all for different fuels. Result: Quantitative raw data: Fuel Name Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Temperature Mass Before/g ( ±0.01) Mass After/g ( ±0.01) Mass Before/g ( ±0.01) Mass After/g ( ±0.01) Before/oC ( ±0.05) After/oC ( ±0.05) Methanol 181.48 180.00 179.79 178.22 20.00 40.00 Ethanol 215.64 214.50 214.52 213.50 20.00 40.00 Propan-1-ol 228.70 227.39 227.39 225.91 20.00 40.00 Butan-1-ol 174.63 173.96 173.96 173.34 20.00 40.00 Pentan-1-ol 172.33 171.47 171.47 170.84 20.00 40.00 Octan-1-ol 218.77 217.72 217.72 216.85 20.00 40.00 Observations during Experiment: All reactions were exothermic as the beaker and the surrounding began to warm up. Fuel Name Observation Methanol It burnt with a short dim orangey yellow flame. The base of the beaker was partly covered with soot. Small bubbles formed at the base of the beaker. Ethanol It burnt with a pale orangey yellow flame. The base of the beaker was slightly darkened by the formation of soot. Small bubbles formed at the base of the beaker. Propan-1-ol It burnt with a thin bright orangey yellow flame. The base of the beaker was again slightly darkened by the formation of soot. Small bubbles formed at the base of the beaker. Butan-1-ol It burnt with a narrow and long yellowish orange flame. The base of the beaker was considerably darkened by the formation of soot. Small bubbles formed at the base of the beaker. Pentan-1-ol It burnt with a narrow and long yellowish orange flame. The base of the beaker was completely darkened by the formation of soot. Small bubbles formed at the base of the beaker. Octan-1-ol It burnt with a narrow and long distinct yellow flame. The base of the beaker was fully obscured by the formation of soot. Small bubbles formed at the base of the beaker. Analysis: The heat that is released in the combustion of an alcohol is absorbed by the liquid. The temperature change of the liquid is then related to the heat of combustion of the alcohol (heat released in a reaction (combustion in this case) = heat gained by the substance). I can work out the heat energy absorbed by the liquid using the formula: Heat Energy transferred (Q) = mà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢cà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  T c = specific heating capacity of water (4.18 Jg-1K-1) m = mass of water (in grams) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  T = change in temperature of the water. And find the enthalpy (heat) change of combustion per fraction of a mole of the alcohol. For example: Mass of water (m) = 100g ( ±0.5), Change in Temperature (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  T) = 20.00 °C ( ±0.10) Therefore, Heat Energy Transferred (Q) = mà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢cà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  T (degree of uncertainty) = 100 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢ 4.18 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢ 20 ( ±0.5 +  ±0.10) = 8360 J ( ±0.6) = 8.36 kJ ( ±0.6) This is the same for every reaction as the mass of water remains constant. From here on, I can calculate the enthalpy change per fraction of a mole of the substance as it combusts to form its products: à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  Hc Alcohol + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water Mass of Methanol used = 1.52g ( ±0.02) Number of moles (N) = M/RMM (percentage degree of uncertainty) = 1.52g / 32.04g ( ±2.00% +  ±0%) = 0.0474 mol ( ±2.00%) Where, M = Mass of the Alcohol used to heat the amount of water RMM = Relative Molar Mass of the Alcohol obtained from the data book, so the percentage uncertainty is  ±0% à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€ž ¢ Enthalpy change of Combustion (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  Hc) = Q/N (percentage degree of uncertainty) = 8.36 kJ / 0.0474 mol ( ±7.17% +  ±2.00%) = 176.22 ( ±9.17%) All calculations are done similarly. Fuel Name Average Initial mass/g ( ±0.01) Average Final mass/g ( ±0.01) (M) Mass used/g ( ±0.02) (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  T) Temp change/ °C ( ±0.10) (Q) Heat Energy Transferred/kJ ( ±0.12) (N) Number of Moles used/mol ( ±2.00%) (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  Hc) Enthalpy change of Combustion ( ±9.17%) /kJ mol-1 Methanol 180.64 179.11 1.52 20.00 8.36 4.74 x10-2 -176.22 Ethanol 215.08 214.00 1.08 20.00 8.36 2.34 x10-2 -356.62 Propan-1-ol 228.05 226.65 1.40 20.00 8.36 2.33 x10-2 -358.82 Butan-1-ol 174.30 173.65 0.65 20.00 8.36 0.88 x10-2 -953.29 Pentan-1-ol 171.90 171.16 0.75 20.00 8.36 0.85 x10-2 -982.58 Octan-1-ol 218.25 217.29 0.96 20.00 8.36 0.74 x10-2 -1134.09 Conclusion: From the table it is evident that the molar mass of an alcohol increases the amount of heat energy it dispenses per fraction of a mole. Also, the graph shows that there is a positive correlation between molar mass and enthalpy change of combustion for alcohols. What could explain the relation is that as the molar mass increases there is an increase in the number of available carbon atoms to combine with oxygen and release energy. Therefore, an increase in molar mass will have an incremental effect on the enthalpy change of combustion. Evaluation: Fuel Name Literature à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  Hc Value (LV) Experimental à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  Hc Value (EV) Literature error (EV – LV)/LV*100 Methanol -726.00 -176.22 75.76% Ethanol -1367.30 -356.62 74.00% Propan-1-ol -2021.00 -358.82 82.24% Butan-1-ol -2675.60 -953.29 64.38% Pentan-1-ol -3328.70 -982.58 70.48% Octan-1-ol -5293.60 -1134.09 78.58% Table depicting the percentage error of the experimental value from the actual value available in the data book Average Literature error: 74.22% The results are not consistent with the literature values, all of the reactants did not completely combust due to the lack of oxygen, leading to the formation of soot and carbon monoxide, which means that the heat output is less than it would have been if all of the carbon burnt, since the calculations are based on the mass of the un-burnt carbon, the calculated value is less than the literature value. The beaker would not have transferred all the heat across; some would have been lost in heating the beaker as well as the clamp and stand, this would have caused the value to be less than the actual value. Other possible sources of error could be by slight differences in the values of the fixed variables, like the mass of water not being exactly 100g, due to incorrect reading of the measuring cylinder caused by a parallax (when the scale is read at an angle to the eye, as the light is refracted through the glass, the reading appears to be at a different position). The same error could have been also made in the reading of the thermometer, causing there to be wrong temperature readings. There were some anomalies when reading the graph as two values were almost identical. It could have been due to the amount of wick on the burner as it would not have been exactly the same (6mm) on each burner as this was difficult to measure. This would have caused differences in the amount of alcohol burnt. The flame was not always just touching the beaker, as this again was difficult to measure accurately, and would have caused differences in the amount of heat given off as the temperature of the flame is different at different heights. Also, the thermometer was not in the same place at each temperature recording, as even though the water was stirred, there would be differences in the temperature of the water at different depths. Errors mentioned in conducting Experiment Possible corrections that could be made Incomplete Combustion of reactants Placing the fuel in an airtight chamber and controlling the flow of air through valves as to make the correct stoichiometric balance ratio of carbon and oxygen. Heat loss to the surrounding Insulation of the beaker, boss, clamp and stand by wrapping them with polystyrene. Also, Preventing any draught from carrying the heat energy away by placing a board to shield it. Parallax error Position of eye at all volumetric vessels must be at the same level as the meniscus. Transfer of heat energy to the liquid A calorimeter made of a better heat conducting material, perhaps something strong and lightweight like aluminium.

Car Wax :: essays research papers

ALL ABOUT CAR WAX A waxed painted surface protects the paint from many contaminants including minor abrasions, along with protection from UV rays and infra-red light. Waxes which supposedly clean and wax in one application compromise both processes. Brazilian Carnauba (car-NOW-ba) wax is wax of choice for automotive paints. Wax provides an invisible barrier to protect the paint. Since carnauba is hydroscopic, meaning that it naturally absorbs water, it expands upon application to a car's painted surface and protects it from the elements. Pure carnauba is impossible to apply in such form -- it is rock-hard. Pure high grade carnauba, when mixed with natural oils in ranges from 25 to 50 percent produce the deepest and richest shine to a painted surface. There are compromises in achieving such a result. Ease of application durability, and speed in getting the job done often require a greater mix of silicones and polymers and less carnauba. Those types of waxes often sacrifice depth of gloss and shine to t he paint. Your needs may be suited by specific products which balance the ease of application, depth of shine, and durability of the end result. With pure waxes with natural oils as the carrying agent, wax will adhere to the paint immediately without white residue or deposits left. Wax is applied in straight strokes in either direction and taken up with a clean terry cloth towel before it dries at the point where it becomes tacky. If wax is applied in high humidity it may streak. It may also streak due to uneven application if you apply the wax in a circular motion. Small areas should be waxed at one time. Constantly rotate the cleaning towel to apply a fresh area of the towel for proper wax removal. Use a foam applicator for the wax application rather than a cloth. The closed cell foam will not absorb wax into the material -- all you want to do is apply a thin film onto the paint for a proper application. Only a microscopic portion of wax adheres to the surface of the paint. Excess wax will only be wiped off and wasted in the process if too much wax is applied at one time. An eight ounce container of wax should enable you to do ten to twenty applications of your car's finish. The Facts Behind Wax For many detailers, nothing finishes off a well-detailed car like a high quality finish wax or polish.

A Comparison of Men and Women Essay -- comparison compare contrast ess

Men vs. Women      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I do not pretend to be a complete expert in the vast world of men and women. However, as one of these creatures, I decided early on in life to do my best to figure out the relationship between us and our counterparts. This was very interesting to me because, unlike most people, I do not believe that we simply "evolved" to become what we are today. I believe we were created the way we are by a very big God who knew what He was doing, and did it for a purpose.   After a mere 18 years of observation, I have concluded that we as humans are trying to look too deeply into the purpose of "man" and "woman." We make the relationship too complicated. We need to stop prying into why men like football and women like quilts, and simply accept that we do. That is the way it is. And as I shall point out, that is the way it is best.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   You may have recoiled at my earlier statement that men like football and women like quilts. I admit that it is a gross simplification of the differences between men and women.   However, you knew what I was talking about. These are the stereotypes that have been pounded into our brains since we were age two.   The man is the grunting, unfeeling one in the easy chair, who only takes a break from football to work on his car, or go drink with his buddies.   He is a brute, and is not interested in communication, only sex.   The woman is the one who screams at spiders, nags at the children, shops till she drops and holds those amazing sessions with her friends where all who are present talk at the exact same time for an hour and then pack up the coffee cups and diaper bags and leave with a complete understanding of everything that was said.        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ... ...us into a concentrated effort to fulfill the desires of our spouses. It is then that we would find more harmony in our homes. As Henry W. Longfellow wrote in "Hiawatha": "As to the bow the cord is/So unto man is woman;/Tho' she bends him,/She obeys him./Tho' she draws him,/Yet she follows;/Useless each without the other."   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   And so we are.      Works Cited Tannen, Deborah. "Sex, Lies and Conversation." The McGraw-Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines 8th edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. Boston: McGraw- Hill, 2003. 229. The Holy Bible, New International Version. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973. Theroux, Paul. "Being a Man." The McGraw -Hill Reader: Issues Across the Disciplines 8th edition. Ed. Gilbert H. Muller. Boston: Mc-Graw-Hill, 2003. 221, 219-220. Weber, Stu. Tender Warrior. Sisters: Multnomah, 1999. 117-118.

Intro to Marketing Essay

It is important that McDonalds Corporation makes sure that any of their widely attractive and competitive marketing activities are produced within the constraints of the law. Consumer protection involves defending consumers by giving them a way to get reparations for damage cause because of faulty products. Therefore, McDonalds should keep up with changes in the law and landmark rulings to make sure any marketing in which they are developing won’t be illegal. Sales of Goods Act 1979 This act requires traders to sell goods whether that is written, verbal or graphical descriptions, they should be correctly and accurately described as well as being a satisfactory quality. This means that the condition of the product should include how long it lasts and being fit for purpose is key. This directly affects marketing activity as it means that any marketing should describe the product as accurately and truthful information. the product must be able to be used for purpose and if not, the customer is entitled to a full refund or exchange as a result of their concerns. If it is stated, it has to be guaranteed and false information given when advertising can be illegal. For example, McDonalds is one of the biggest fast food industries known globally. The products that they sell cannot be falsely advertised stating they are very healthy as by law, the amount of calories, fat, carbohydrates and sugar are all ingredients must be state on the packaging. It must be shown to potential customers exactly what products they sell and the quality must meet the standards as they are advertised. If not, this could lead to fines and imprisonment. Also, if a customer has a dispute of a member of McDonalds about the calories of a burger, the customer would then be informed exactly how many calories are in a burger as they are stated on every bit of packaging for exactly what is in the burger. Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008 This act entitles all customers to fair treatment and honesty from businesses they deal with. This relatively recent piece of legislation should not have affected most businesses, but was targeted at organisations that do not always treat their customers well. Under this act, businesses cannot use aggressive sale tactics, or use dishonest promotional campaigns such as false advertising. For example, if McDonalds advertised their burgers on sale and they weren’t, this would result in mislead customers and giving false impressions to their target audiences which could possibly affect their reputation. EBay is a good example of this act. If an item is bought from a seller that is not as described or to an unsatisfactory quality, the buyer in entitled to a refund. If the seller fights their corner and claims that the buyer’s comments are untrue, the buyer can then open a case in the resolution centre in order to resolve this problem. Under the buyer protection policy, eBay has the right to fight the corner of the buyer so that the right solution is made. Consumer Credit Acts 1974 and 2006 This act protects consumer’s rights when they buy goods on credit or companies lending money to consumers. Traders who offend this law must have an OFT (Office of Fair Trading) licence and any complaints that arise with the customer regarding the organisation is dealt with by the FOS (Financial Ombudsman Service). For example, if you buy an Apple Mac computer, when this good has been paid for using a form of credit whether it be a credit card or credit agreement arranged by the trader, you may have an equal liability claim against the credit firm providing the contracted amount is over  £100 but no more than  £30,000. Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulations 2000 Distance selling is any form of selling where there is no face to face communications between the customer and seller. the regulations require the business to provide clear information so customers can make more informed decisions regarding their purchases. An example of this regulation would be EBay. The business will give the consumer information such as goods they are selling, clear description, condition, location, payment options, delivery arrangements and returns policy. Data Protection Act 1998 This act means that any information stored by marketers must only be used for the stated purpose, must be accurately up to date and obtained fairly as well as lawfully. The act focuses on all businesses holding any confidential customer information on a database. As well as this, it should be no longer kept more than it is needed for a processed in line with your rights. It must be kept up to date as if someone passes away, you should not call asking for them. Also, if your information is protected from unauthorised use, it cannot be passed on to other companies without permission. The information which is stored is available for your inspection and correction upon request. It should also be protected from transfer to an area outside of the EEA (European Economic Area) unless adequate. McDonalds only gather personal information when voluntary submitted on their website to give feedback and they have online prize promotions. Sometimes, they change their private policies but only if a pressure group acts against them which is brought to the organisations attention. Trade Descriptions Act 1968 The act was introduced in order to protect consumers when purchasing products and services. It stipulates numerous different regulations that traders must adhere when carrying out their marketing activities. Sellers therefore must not mislead customers in any way as well as making descriptive yet accurate. This act not only refers to written descriptions but includes discussions, interactive exchanges and written documents. For example, within this act the trader must not indicate that a price is lower than it actually is as this is giving customers false information and misguiding them. McDonalds could not advertise that the price of a meal is  £3.00 is it is more than that because people will get the wrong idea and be displeased by the service and description of their products being false. Code of Advertising Practise and Advertising Standards Authority Marketing activities for a organisation are policed by the independent ASA. It is an industry body rather than a legal framework, and it promotes and maintains the UK code of advertising, sales promotion and direct marketing. The rules are to keep within the legal framework, protect customers from misleading claims, create an even footing for advertising. Principals for this include regulations such as the advertising a business produces should be in lines with the following rules: should be legal, decent, honest, truthful and have a sense of responsibility. Their advertising should not also be misleading or offensive. For example, McDonalds should not create slogans or include graphical advertising methods offending certain animal welfare groups or vegetarians as this is disregarded and taken seriously as well as being odious which they could potential lose customers because of. Ethical consideration A pressure group is an organised group that seeks to influence government policy or to protect a particular cause of interest. They don’t fight elections but may promote specific issues and may have more political objectives to aim for whilst enduring their campaign. they are undergone quietly on issues which most citizens wouldn’t full understand or recognise. For example, policies such as a medical association wanting to persuade the government to close down tobacco companies would affect their business and would also result in many convenience stores that would sell cigarettes. For example, in May 2011, more than 500 health professionals signed a petition to ask the makers of happy meals to stop marketing junk food to children so this had an impact on McDonalds in order to fulfil the needs to protesters so now healthier options such as fruit bags and fruit juices were introduced as a substitute to these ‘junk’ foods. Another example includes the animal rights pressure group; PETA launched a global campaign again McDonalds regarding animal rights issues and have created a billboard campaign disregarding McDonald’s non guilty claims which tried to make the fast-food giants listen to their views against animal welfare and rights. Consumerism is the organised efforts by individuals, groups and governments to help protect consumers from policies and practises that infringe the rights of consumers to fair business practises. It identifies the rights for consumers to be safe, to be informed, to choose and be heard. The Office of Fair Trading plays an active role in implement consumer legislation and to take action against traders who are seen as ‘unfair’. The packaging is an example of this as McDonalds used to use boxes that weren’t biodegradable but now they are being more environmentally friendly by using plastic boxes that won’t wear away and the resource is cheaper and will last longer. Advertising is mean to attract customers in but sometimes comments made can be acted upon and made subjective if the viewers don’t like what they see or hear. The language chosen for advertising needs to be accessible to the audience and put in a way that everyone can understand to widen the market of the product or service. The Advertising Standards Authority have acknowledged and acted upon the key areas which are when adverts refer to sex, involve strong language, religions and belief are fought against and also offensive grounds such as prejudgement or racism. In McDonalds case, critical issues that arose as a result of their advertising were there was claims that the organisation ‘exploits children’ with its advertising; the company was blamed for misleading children by using attractive advertisement as the use of fun character Ronald McDonald to encourage young people and attracting them to kid’s meals. Bibliography John Bevan, H. C.-S. (2010). BTEC Level 3 National Business, Book 1. Harlow, Essex, GBR : Pearson Education. http://www.tradedescriptionsact.co.uk/content/trade-descriptions-act-1968-28. html http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/bbc_parliament/2443603.stm http://www.asa.org.uk/ http://www.tradingstandards.gov.uk/ http://www.scribd.com/doc/46508929/P2-Limitations-and-Constraints http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/474136.stm http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703509104576329610340358394.html