Biology Gcse Revision free essay sample

Small living organisms; there are 3 types * Bacteria – ecoli, salmonella * Fungi – mushrooms, athletes foot * Virus – influenza (flu), HIV * When they enter our body, they multiply and release toxins / harmful chemicals into our blood * They duplicate every 20 minutes Physical barriers: eyelashes prevent MO’s from entering through our eyes, nasal hairs reduce them, skin is a barrier to them (although they can enter through cuts), chemicals in tears and sweat, acid in the stomach kills most MO’s * Also called pathogens (microorganisms that cause disease) * Our body provides MO’s with ideal conditions to multiply in (warm and moist) The immune system: * All white blood cells are part of this system * Phagocyte – a type of white blood cell that will eliminate the virus by engulfing then digesting the bacteria, the process of this is called phagocytosis. Lymphocyte – a type of white blood cell that carry antibodies * Antigen  œ certain chemicals that are foreign to the body in pathogens * E. We will write a custom essay sample on Biology Gcse Revision or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page g. : 1. James is infected by some bacteria that cause a disease. 2. The bacteria reproduce and produce toxins that make James ill 3. A white blood cell detects the bacteria and it makes antibodies to attach to it. Other white blood cells engulf the labelled bacteria and destroy them 4. The white blood cells that produce the right antibodies reproduce meaning there are lots of them making antibodies 5. Most of the white blood cells that make this antibody die, but there are few that stay in the blood called memory cells 6. The bacteria are killed and James gets better 7. He is then infected by the same bacteria 8. The memory cells that stayed in James’ blood from last time respond quickly and kill the bacteria before he becomes ill * Memory cell – a type of white blood cell that stay in the blood after the infection has been fought off * They respond quickly when it meets a microorganism for the econd time and produce the right antibody for the particular microorganism and destroy it before you feel unwell meaning you become immune to a disease. Vaccinations: * Vaccination involves exposing the body’s immune system to a dead or inactive version of the pathogen in order to stimulate white blood cells to produce antibodies for a disease or group of diseases * People can be immunised against a pathogen through vaccination. Different vaccines are needed for different pathogens * The vaccine contains only a weakened or harmless version of a pathogen, which means that the vaccinated person is in no danger of developing the disease * Epidemic – a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time * To prevent epidemics a large percentage of the population needs to be vaccinated Antimicrobials: Chemicals that inhibit the growth of MO’s or kill them, but don’t kill viruses * Antibiotics – type of antimicrobial that kill bacteria but don’t kill viruses * MO’s can sometimes become resistant to antimicrobials (leads to a gene for resistance being passed down to offspring) * Antibiotic resistance – when some of the bacteria are resistant to the antibiotics, this can be slowed down by finishing the course and only taking them when needed * The main steps in the development of resistance are: 1. Random changes or mutations occur in th e genes of individual bacterial cells 2. Some mutations protect the bacterial cell from the effects of the antibiotic 3. Bacteria without the mutation die or cannot reproduce with the antibiotic present 4. The resistant bacteria are able to reproduce with less competition from normal bacterial strains * Mutations in bacteria can result in them becoming resistant to antibiotics, turning the bacteria into a ‘superbug’ * MRSA is a superbug resistant to almost all antibiotics Clinical trials: * When a new drug is tested on humans to find out whether or not it is afe and if it works * Groups are chosen at random to make sure that the results of the study are reliable * The control group is the group that will be given the same drug again, or a placebo * Placebo – a ‘fake’ drug in the form of a medicine that doesn’t do anything, it just dissolves in your system * In some trials where patients are seriously ill, placebos aren’t used because it is unethical not to allow them to get the potential benefits of the new drug * Blind trial – patients don’t know if they’ve been given a drug or placebo because a patient who knows they are being treated might feel better for psychological reasons even if there hasn’t been any improvement * Double-blind trial – as well as the patients, the scientists carrying out the research also don’t find out until the end which patients were given real drugs/placebos * Open-label trials – the patients and the scientists are both aware of the treatments that have been used because they can’t be masked, e. g. if one is a drug and the other is exercise Circulatory system: * Blood is circulated around the body in tubes called blood vessels * Oxygen and nutrients are carried in the blood to the body cells and waste substances (e. g. arbon dioxide) are carried away from the cells * Cell – a basic unit of life * The heart is a pumping organ that keeps the blood flowing through the vessels * The heart is a double pump * The right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs to collect oxygen and remove carbon dioxide * The left pumps oxygenated blood around the body * Aorta – biggest artery in the body * Coronary arteries – branch from the aorta and provide the heart with oxygen, blood and nutrients * Lumen – the inside space of a vessel Blood vessel| Structure and adaptation| Arteries| * Carry blood away from the heart to the body cells * The blood comes out of the heart at a high pressure so the artery walls ave to be thick, strong and elastic| Veins| * Carry blood back to the heart * The blood is at a lower pressure so the walls are thinner * The lumen is bigger than arteries so the blood can flow more easily * The valves keep the blood flowing in the right direction| capillaries| * Carry blood really close to every cell in the body to exchange substances (the walls are permeable to substances diffuse in and out) * Branches of very small arteries (a microscope is needed to see them) * Supply nutrients and oxygen and remove wastes (e. g. carbon dioxide) * Walls are only one cell thick which increases the rate of diffusion| Heart rate / blood pressure: Blood needs to be under pressure to be able to travel around our body * The pressure is kept up by the heart continuously pumping * Heart rate – number of times the heart beats in one minute * Pulse rate  œ number of times an artery pulsates in one minute * The pulsation of an artery is caused by blood being pumped through it by a heart beat * When the heart muscle contracts, blood is forced out of the heart and increases blood pressure * When the heart muscle relaxes, the heart fills with blood and blood pressure decreases * Blood pressure measurements – e. g. 135/85 the higher value is the pressure when the heart contracts and the lower value is when it relaxes * Normal / average blood pressure – 80-110/60-80 * Normal / average heart rate – 60-100bpm High blood pressure increases the risk of heart disease * High blood pressure can damage the smooth and unbroken lining of an artery * Fatty deposits can build up in these damaged areas and they restrict blood flow, increasing the blood pressure to increase * If a fatty deposit breaks through the inner lining of an artery, a blood clot can form around it which could completely block the artery * If a coronary artery becomes completely blocked, an area of the heart muscle will be totally cut off from its blood supply, receiving no oxygen – this causes a heart attack * A heart attack can cause serious damage to the heart or cause death of the heart muscle Heart disease: * Heart disease can be caused by genes but is often linked to lifestyle factors * Poor diet – cholesterol makes up a large part of fatty deposits increasing blood cholesterol which increases the risk of heart disease, food with a lot of salt increases blood pressure * Smoking – carbon monoxide reduces how much oxygen the blood can transport and nicotine increases heart rate * Stress – increases blood pressure Drugs – ecstasy and cannabis increase heart rate which increases blood pressure * Excessive alcohol – increases blood pressure * Regular moderate exercise reduces the risk of developing heart disease * Heart disease is more common in industrialised countries (e. g. UK and USA) because they can afford high fat food and don’t need to be very active because they can afford cars, etc Epidemiological studies: * Epidemiology is the study of patterns of diseases and the factors that affect them * Lifestyle factors – studying a group of people who all died from heart disease to look for similarities in their lifestyle that may be linked to heart disease, e. g. hey were all smokers or they had poor diets * Genetic studies – studying the genetic makeup of a large group of people and looking out for genetic similarities between the people who affected by heart disease Homeostasis: * Balancing inputs with outputs to maintain a constant internal environment * Body temperature and water levels are both kept constant * The environment is constantly ch anging so the conditions inside the body need to be kept steady in order for cells to function properly * Automatic control systems maintain body temperature and water levels * The three main parts to maintaining homeostasis are: 1. The receptors – detect a change in the environment 2. Processing centres – receive information and determine how the body systems respond 3. Effectors – produce the response * Negative feedback – information that causes a reversal in a control system, e. g. when we get too hot our body responds by bringing our temperature back to normal (37 degrees) * Vasodilation – when blood vessels become wider and closer to the skins surface * When body temperature goes over 37 degrees, it is detected by the receptors and a message is sent to the processing centre in the brain (hypothalamus). The effectors produce the response and the blood vessels vasodilate so that heat is lost and temperature drops. The vessels then return to their normal diameter. The kidneys maintain levels of water, urea, salts and other chemicals in the blood * Urea comes from broken down proteins and needs to be excreted because it has poisonous chemicals that can get into the blood stream * Inputs – water can be gained from drinks, food an d respiration * Outputs – water can be lost through sweating, breathing and in faeces and urine * The kidneys balance water levels by producing dilute or concentrated urine * Blood plasma – the liquid that carries blood cells and dissolved substances * The concentration of urine depends on the concentration of blood plasma (which varies with external temperature, exercise levels and the intake of fluids and salt) External temperature| Exercise | Intake of fluids and salts| * Sweat contains water so sweating causes water loss * When it’s hot, the kidneys reabsorb more water back into the blood * A small amount of concentrated urine will be produced| * Exercise makes you hotter so you sweat to cool down * Same effect as heat produced * Small volume of concentrated urine| * Not drinking enough water or eating too much salt will produce concentrated urine * Drinking lots of water will produce lots of dilute urine| * The concentration of urine is controlled by a hormone called ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) * The pituitary gland releases ADH into the bloodstream * The process of water content regulation is controlled by negative feedback When the concentration of blood plasma falls†¦| When the concentration of blood plasma rises†¦| The pituitary gland secretes†¦| Less ADH| More ADH| The kidneys reabsorb†¦| Less water| More water| The urine volume†¦| Increases| Decrease s| The urine concentration†¦| Decreases| Increases| 1. A receptor in the brain detects that the water content is too high 2. The processing centre in the brain receives the information and coordinates a response 3. The pituitary gland releases less ADH so the kidneys reabsorb less water Or 1. A receptor in the brain detects that the water content is too low 2. The processing centre in the brain receives the information and coordinates a response 3. The pituitary gland releases more ADH so the kidneys reabsorb more water * ADH production can be affected by drugs * Alcohol suppresses (restrains or forcibly stops) ADH production so the kidneys will reabsorb less water * Drinking alcohol can result in a larger amount of more dilute urine being produced * More water passes out of the body as urine which can cause dehydration * Ecstasy is an illegal recreational drug * Taking it can result in a smaller amount of more concentrated urine being produced * Ecstasy causes the production of ADH to increase so the kidneys will reabsorb more water * Less water passes out of the body as urine

marry Essays - Salem Witch Trials, Mary Eastey, Rebecca Nurse, Towne

Mary Easty, a wealthy mother of seven, was shockingly accused of witchcraft in the infamous Salem Witch Trials. Mass hysteria broke out when Easty, the sister of Rebecca Nurse, was accused of witchcraft. ?Considering the assumption that witchcraft was hereditary, Mary (Towne) Easty was certain to be accused of witchcraft after her sister, Rebecca (Towne) Nurse, was condemned for her unwavering appeal of innocence? (Austin). The Salem Witch Trials were not the greatest part of history, but they mark a knowing for the unknown in the particular situation. Those who were affected were women of the elder age, town crazies, those with a not so clean reputation, and those who resisted against the church and government. The Salem Witch Trials are almost, yet not quite, on the same levels as the Holocaust of World War Two. Easty was clearly innocent of this absurdity, she was wealthy, religious and fit the strict Puritan mold. It is believed that Mary Easty was accused due to jealousy of land and wealth. (Salem Witch Trials - The People - Mary Easty - DiscoverySchool.com) The Easty family had valuable land in Salem Village which made many greedy families, such as the Putnams, want their land. In this case, Putnam didn?t accuse Mrs. Easty, unlike Sarah Osborne?s case, where the Putnams were the main accusers. The Putnam?s seemed to play in the ignorance now known as the Salem Witch Trials. The Easty family was popular by default due to all of the land they own. ?As land became scar...

How to write for a global audience - Emphasis

How to write for a global audience How to write for a global audience The growth in global commerce means it is more likely than ever that your writing will have an international audience. Increasingly, we need to communicate with people who speak English as a second language, whether they are based in the UK or overseas. But your words can easily get lost in translation when writing for this readership, especially if you arent adapting your copy. To ensure all your readers fully understand your message, it is essential to make your writing as clear as possible, and bear some rules in mind. Emails between colleagues Even informal emails between co-workers need thinking about. Heres a reply to a colleague who has suggested you visit her office. Hi Mariela Thanks for the invitation. Phil and I are definitely up for it, but as its on the firms time, Ill need to get the go ahead from Tony Ill talk to him asap and get back to you. Jan At first sight this seems to be a perfectly clear email, but Mariela is a second-language speaker of English. This means we have to re-examine our writing. Language barriers Lets take a closer look at the language in the email to recognise the traps we can fall into: Clusters of meaningless words Phil and I are definitely up for it: the English language has hundreds of these clusters, eg put up with, look up to, top it up, which together have specific meanings. They are called phrasal verbs and we can often replace them with a one-word simple alternative, eg tolerate, admire, fill. Confusing words On the firms time: company or organisation are more recognisable words than firm in the context of work. Also, firm has more than one meaning, which could be confusing. And a literal translation of on the time wouldnt make sense. Colloquial expressions To get the go ahead: second-language speakers often enjoy these expressions once they know them. But we cant guarantee they know them yet. So, unless youre sure, avoid them. Abbreviations Asap: again, unless youre confident your reader knows the abbreviations, they will be meaningless. Heres a rewrite of the email: Hi Mariela Thanks for the invitation. Phil and I definitely want to come. Ill need to get Tonys permission as its during the working week. Ill talk to him as soon as I can and tell you what he says. Jan Its still informal and natural, but so much clearer to non-native English speakers.

The Weather and Folklore of Altocumulus Clouds

The Weather and Folklore of Altocumulus Clouds An altocumulus cloud is a middle-level cloud that lives between 6,500 to 20,00 feet above ground and is made of water. Its name comes from the Latin Altus meaning high Cumulus meaning heaped. Altocumulus clouds are of the stratocumuliform cloud family (physical form) and are one of the 10 basic cloud types. There are four species of cloud underneath the altocumulus genus: altocumulus lenticularis (stationary lens-shaped clouds that are often mistaken for UFOs)altocumulus castellanus (altocumulus with tower-like sproutings that billow upwards)altocumulus stratiformis (altocumulus in sheets or relatively flat patches)altocumulus floccus (altocumulus with scattered tufts and fringy lower parts) The abbreviation for altocumulus clouds is (Ac). Cotton Balls in the Sky Altocumulus are commonly seen on warm spring and summer mornings. Theyre some of the simplest clouds to identify, especially since they look like balls of cotton stuck into the blue background of the sky. Theyre often white or gray in color and are arranged in patches of wavy, rounded masses or rolls. Altocumulus clouds are often called sheepback or mackerel sky because they resemble the wool of sheep and scales of mackerel fish. Bellwethers of Bad Weather Altocumulus clouds that appear on a clear humid morning can indicate the development of thunderstorms later in the day. Thats because altocumulus clouds often precede cold fronts of low-pressure systems. As such, they also sometimes signal the onset of cooler temperatures. While they are not clouds from which precipitation falls, their presence signals convection and instability at mid-levels of the troposphere. Altocumulus in Weather Folklore Mackerel sky, mackerel sky. Never long wet and never long dry.Mackerel scales and mares tails make lofty ships carry low sails. If youre a fan of weather folklore, youve likely heard the above sayings, both of which are true. The first piece of lore warns that if altocumulus clouds are seen and air pressure begins to fall, the weather wont be dry for much longer because it may start raining within 6 hours time. But once the rain does come, it wont be wet for long because as the warm front passes, so too will the precipitation. The second rhyme warns ships to lower and take in their sails for the same reason; a storm may be approaching soon and the sails should be lowered to protect them from the accompanying high winds.

Courtroom Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Courtroom Technology - Essay Example The result was a massive media spectacle. Some judges disapprove of cameras in the courtroom, suggesting that judges may end up playing up to the camera. It is generally considered a negative thing to have a great deal of media attention surrounding a trial as it may prejudice those involved. Different jurisdictions have different rules relating to this issue. Indeed, even some Supreme Court Justices have been somewhat schizophrenic on this issue. A few years ago, Justice Antonin Scalia, who has always taken a hard line against technology in the courtroom, expanded the notion of where technology was acceptable during a public speech he gave: During an April 7 speech by Scalia at a high school in Hattiesburg, a deputy federal marshal, Melanie Rube, demanded that AP reporter Denise Grones and Hattiesburg American reporter Antoinette Konz erase recordings of the justice's remarks. The reporters had not been told before the speech that they could not use tape recorders. When Grones resis ted, the marshal took the digital recorder out of her hands. The reporter then showed Rube how to erase the recording (AP). This issue caused a great deal of controversy at the time, and eventually led to an apology. Nevertheless, it has been reported that Justice Scalia is fond of the Ipad and uses it regularly. Clearly, the position of courts have everywhere have been evolving over the years. A timeline would suggest they have moved from conservative restriction to a more permissive, liberal approach. Standards vary from one jurisdiction and one judge to another. Indeed, other supreme court judges have been equally happy about the result of technology in the courtroom. One of the court's recent appointees, Justice Kagan, has the following to say about the huge amount of legal pleadings that justices have to work their way through: â€Å"At times there are as many as 50 friend-of-the-court briefs for one case. That is on top of the motions submitted directly by the named parties. So there is a lot of reading . . . And you know that's a big part of the job and if a Kindle or an iPad can make it easier, that's terrific" (Beahm). We see that people intimately involved in the judicial system have embraced technology in some ways, while rejecting it in others. We need to find ways to effectively implement technology across the board so long as it is helpful. There are a number of other ways that technology can be useful to those involved in the legal profession. For example, electronic discovery has made life very difficult for many lawyers. The sheer quantity of electronic documents involved in some cases makes it impossible to physically go through every document or email by hand. Special software is required to deal with these large quantities. This software can search through keywords to find important phrases or names. It can dramatically shorten the amount of time required to find what a lawyer is looking for. Both courts and lawyers can work together as pa rtners to develop and implement technologies in the courtroom. One system currently being used is called Digital Evidence Presentation System and allows for electronic, integrated presentation in the courtroom. As one expert says: â€Å"Although attorneys have significant control over the systems in the courtroom, the court has instantaneous override capability. With the touch of a button, a judge can turn off every screen in the courtroom, including the screens in the jury box and the large screen displaying

Multicultural Experience Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Multicultural Experience - Assignment Example I am a young white woman who has disbelief in religion and God. I visited a black church, Mount Zion Nashville recently in order to learn more about the communication and cultural traits of the African community in America. â€Å"Black Churches are one of the few institutions in America that brings many African-Americans together across demographic and socioeconomic lines†. This paper Analyzes the effect of group influence on the self especially in a multicultural environment taking into the account of my experience at Mount Zion Nashville church. I had the lot of concerns about how the black community may welcome me, before going to their church. Even though slavery is abolished by law in America, still many of the blacks believe that slavery is appearing in America in different forms now. Because of such beliefs blacks normally keeps some reservations while mingling with the whites. So, I visited the black church with a half-hearted mind. But to my utter surprise, the black community in the church welcomed me warmly and many of them gathered around me in order to convey their warm regards. The visit of a young woman like me to their church treated as an honor by many of the blacks. Even though different black ethnic groups were present in the church, none of them try to dominate in any of the church activities even though they are not so outside the walls of the church. Earlier, I thought that the activities in black churches might reflect their crazy lifestyles in the society. But I have noticed that the entire blacks, and a few whites who attended the mass, remain calm and focused in their communication with the God. â€Å"The opportunity of learning from others and viewing the world through the worldview of the other has been an eye-opening experience for† me.

Mexican Cival Rights Essay Example for Free

Mexican Cival Rights Essay George I. Sanchez, Ideology, and Whiteness in the Making of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement, 1930-1960 By CARLOS K . BLANTON Let us keep in mind that the Mexican-American can easily become the front-line of defense of the civil liberties of ethnic minorities. The racial, cultural, and historical involvements in his case embrace those of all of the other minority groups. Yet, God bless the law, he is white! So, the Mexican-American can be the wedge for the broadening of civil liberties for others (who are not so fortunate as to be white and Christian!). George L Sanchez (1958) By embracing whiteness, Mexican Americans have reinforced the color line that has denied people of African descent full participation in American democracy. In pursuing White rights, Mexican Americans combined Latin American racialism with Anglo racism, and in the process separated themselves and their political agenda from the Black civil rights struggles of the forties and fifties. Neil Foley (1998) 1 HE HISTORY OF RACE AND CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE AMERICAN SoUTH IS complex and exciting. The history of Mexican American civil rights is also promising, particularly so in regard to understanding the role of whiteness. Both selections above, the first from a Mexican American The epigraphs are drawn from George I. Sanchez to Roger N. Baldwin, August 27, 1958, Folder 8, Box 31, George I. Sanchez Papers (Nettie Lee Benson Latin American Collection, University of Texas Libraries, Austin); and Neil Foley, Becoming Hispanic: Mexican Americans and the Faustian Pact with Whiteness, in Foley, ed.. Reflexiones 1997: New Directions In Mexican American Studies (Austin, 1998), 65. The author would like to thank the Journal of Southem Historys six anonymous reviewers and Texas AM Universitys Glasscock Center for Humanities Research for their very helpful intellectual guidance on this essay. MR. BLANTON is an assistant professor of history at Texas AM University. THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY Volume LXXII, No. 3, August 2006 570 THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY intellectual of the mid-twentieth century and the last a recently published statement from a historian of race and identity, are nominally about whiteness. But the historical actor and the historian discuss whiteness differently. The quotation from the 1950s advocates exploiting legal whiteness to obtain civil rights for both Mexican Americans and other minority groups. The one from the 1990s views such a strategy as inherently racist. The historical figure writes of Mexican Americans and African Americans cooperating in the pursuit of shared civil rights goals; the historian writes of the absence, the impossibility of cooperation due to Mexican American whiteness. This contrast is worth further consideration. This essay examines the Mexican American civil rights movement by focusing on the work and ideas of George I. Sanchez—a prominent activist and professor of education at the University of Texas—in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. Sanchez is the most significant intellectual of what is commonly referred to as the Mexican American Generation of activists during this period. As a national president of the major Mexican American civil rights organization of the era, however, Sanchezs political influence within the Mexican American community was just as important as his intellectual leadership. Sanchez pondered notions of whiteness and actively employed them, offering an excellent case study of the making of Mexican American civil rights. ^ First, this work examines how Sanchezs civil rights efforts were vitally informed by an ideological perspective that supported gradual, integrationist, liberal reform, a stance that grew out of his activist research on African Americans in the South, Mexican Americans in the Southwest, and Latin Americans in Mexico and Venezuela. This New Deal ideological inheritance shaped Sanchezs contention that Mexican Americans were one minority group among many needing governmental assistance. Second, this liberal ideology gave rise to a nettlesome citizenship dilemma. During the Great Depression and World War II, Mexican Americans strategic emphasis on American citizenship rhetorically placed them shoulder-to-shoulder with other U. S. minority groups. It also marginalized immigrant Mexicans. The significance of ^ For more on Sanehez see Gladys R. Leff, George I. Sanchez: Don Quixote of the Southwest (Ph. D. dissertation. North Texas State University, 1976); James Nelson Mowry, A Study of the Educational Thought and Aetion of George I. Sanehez (Ph. D. dissertation. University of Texas, 1977); Amerieo Paredes, ed.. Humanidad: Essays in Honor of George 1. Sanchez (Los Angeles, 1977); Steven Sehlossman, Self-Evident Remedy? George I. Sanchez, Segregation, and Enduring Dilemmas in Bilingual Education, Teachers College Record, 84 (Summer 1983), 871-907; and Mario T. Garcia, Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity, J930-1960 (New Haven, 1989), chap. 10. WHITENESS AND MEXICAN AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS 571 citizenship was controversial within the Mexican American community and coincided with the emergence of an aggressive phase of Mexican Americans civil rights litigation that implemented a legal strategy based on their whiteness. Third, Sanchezs correspondence with Thurgood Marshall of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in the 1940s and 1950s reveals early, fragmentary connections between the Mexican American and African American civil rights movements. All these topics address important interpretive debates about the role of whiteness. This essay fuses two historiographical streams: traditional studies on Mexican American politics and identity and the new whiteness scholarships interpretation of Mexican American civil rights. In traditional works the Mexican American civil rights experience is often examined with little sustained comparison to other civil rights experiences. Conversely, the whiteness scholarship represents a serious attempt at comparative civil rights history. Taking both approaches into account answers the recent call of one scholar for historians to muster even greater historical imagination in conceiving of new histories of civil rights from different perspectives. ^ Traditional research on Mexican Americans in the twentieth century centers on generational lines. From the late nineteenth century to the Great Depression, a large wave of Mexican immigrants, spurred by dislocation in Mexico as well as by economic opportunity in the U. S. , provided low-wage agricultural and industrial labor throughout the Southwest. Their political identity was as Mexicans living abroad, the Mexicanist Generation. They generally paid little heed to American politics and eschewed cultural assimilation, as had earlier Mexicans who forcibly became American citizens as a result of the expansionist wars of the 1830s and 1840s. However, mass violence shortly before World War I, intensifying racial discrimination throughout the early twentieth century, and forced repatriations to Mexico during the Great Depression heralded the rise of a new political ethos. The community had come to believe that its members were endangered by the presumption of foreignness and disloyalty. ^ By the late 1920s younger Charles W. Eagles, Toward New Histories of the Civil Rights Era, Journal of Southern History, 66 (November 2000), 848. See Emilio Zamora, The World of the Mexican Worker in Texas (College Station, Tex., * 1993); George J. Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993); Benjamin Heber Johnson, Revolution in Texas: How a Forgotten Rebellion and Its Bloody Suppression Turned Mexicans into Americans (New Haven, 2003); and Amoldo De Leon, The Tejano Community, 1836-1900 (1982; new ed. , Dallas, 1997). 572 THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY leaders—the Mexican American Generation—urged adoption of a new strategy of emphasizing American citizenship at all times. They strove to speak English in public and in private settings, stressed education, asked for the gradual reform of discriminatory practices, emulated middle-class life, and exuded patriotism as a loyal, progressive ethnic group. They also desired recognition as ethnic whites, not as racial others. The oldest organization expressing this identity was the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). This ethos of hyphenated Americanism and gradual reform held sway until the late 1960s and early 1970s. ^ Studies of whiteness contribute to historians understanding of the interplay of race, ethnicity, and class by going beyond a black-white binary to seek the subtleties and nuances of race. This new scholarship examines who is considered white and why, traces how the definition of white shifts, unearths how whiteness conditions acts of inclusion and exclusion and how it reinforces and subverts concepts of race, and investigates the psychological and material rewards to be gained by groups that successfully claim whiteness. Class tension, nativism, and racism are connected to a larger whiteness discourse. In other words, this is a new, imaginative way to more broadly interrogate the category of race. Works on whiteness often share a conviction that thoughts or acts capitalizing on whiteness reflect racist power as well as contribute to that insidious powers making. They also generally maintain that notions of race, whether consciously employed or not, divide ethnic and racial minorities from each other and from workingclass whites, groups that would otherwise share class status and political goals. ^ In recent reviews of the state of whiteness history, Eric Amesen, See Mario Garcia, Mexican Americans; George J. Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American; David G. Gutierrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley, 1995); Ignacio M. Garcia, Viva Kennedy: Mexican Americans in Search of Camelot (College Station, Tex. , 2000); Carl Allsup, The American G. I. Forum: Origins and Evolution (Austin, 1982); Richard A. Garcia, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929—1941 (College Station, Tex. , 1991); David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, 1987), chaps. 12 and 13; Julie Leininger Pyeior, LBJ and Mexican Americans: The Paradox of Power (Austin, 1997); Juan Gomez-Quinones, Chicano Politics: Reality and Promise, 1940-1990 (Albuquerque, 1990); and Guadalupe San Miguel Jr. , Brown, Not White: School Integration and the Chicano Movement in Houston (College Station, Tex. , 2001). ^ David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (1991; rev. ed.. New York, 1999); Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (New York, 1994); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass. , 1998); George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit From Identity Politics (Philadelphia, 1998). WHITENESS AND MEXICAN AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS. 573 Barbara J. Fields, Peter Kolchin, and Daniel Wickberg offer much criticism. These historians argue that scholars using whiteness as an analytical tool are shoddy in their definitions, read too finely and semantically into documents and literary texts, and privilege discursive moments that have little or nothing to do with actual people or experiences. More specifically, Kolchin and Amesen argue that many studies of whiteness incautiously caricature race as an unchanging, omnipresent, and overly deterministic category. In such works whiteness is portrayed as acting concretely and abstractly with or without historical actors and events. Ironically, studies of whiteness can obscure the exercise of power. Fields explains that studying race and racial identity is more attractive than studying racism because racism exposes the hoUowness of agency and identity . . . [and] it violates the two-sides-to-every-story expectation of symmetry that Americans are peculiarly attached to. ^ Research that applies the idea of whiteness to Mexican American history is sparse and even more recent. Several of these studies focus upon the use of whiteness as a legal strategy while others take a broader approach. ^ Historian Neil Foley offers the most significant and ambitious arguments by moving beyond an analysis of how white people viewed Mexican Americans to look instead at the construction of whiteness in the Mexican American mind. He shifts the perspective from external whiteness to internal whiteness and argues that Mexican Americans entered into a Faustian Pact by embracing racism toward African Americans in the course of trying to avoid de jure discrimination. Foley claims that Mexican Americans consciously curried the favor of racist whites: In pursuing White rights, Mexican Americans Peter Kolchin, Whiteness Studies: The New History of Race in America, Journal of American History, 89 (June 2002), 154-73; Eric Arnesen, Whiteness and the Historians Imagination, International Labor and Working-Class History, 60 (Fall 2001), 3-32; Barbara J. Fields, Whiteness, Racism, and Identity, International Labor and Working-Class History, 60 (Fall 2001), 48-56 (quotations on p.48); Daniel Wickberg, Heterosexual White Male; Some Recent Inversions in American Cultural History, Journal of American History, 92 (June 2005), 136-57. *Ian F. Haney Lopez, White By Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996); Neil Foley, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley, 1997); Steven Harmon Wilson, The Rise of Judicial Management in the U. S. District Court, Southern District of Texas, 1955-2000 (Athens, Ga., 2002); Wilson, Brown over Other White; Mexican Americans Legal Arguments and Litigation Strategy in School Desegregation Lawsuits, Law and History Review, 21 (Spring 2003), 145-94; Clare Sheridan, Another White Race: Mexican Americans and the Paradox of Whiteness in Jury Selection, Law and History Review, 21 (Spring 2003), 109^14; Ariela J. Gross, Texas Mexicans and the Polities of Whiteness, Law and History Review, 21 (Spring 2003), 195-205; Carlos Kevin Blanton, The Strange Career of Bilingual Education in Texas, 1836-1981 (College Station, Tex., 2004); Patrick J. Carroll, Felix Longorias Wake: Bereavement, Racism, and the Rise of Mexican American Activism (Austin, 2003). 574 THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY combined Latin American racialism with Anglo racism, and in the process separated themselves and their political agenda from the Black civil rights struggles of the forties and fifties. ^ Missing from such interpretations of whitenesss meaning to Mexican Americans is George I. Sanchezs making of Mexican American civil rights. Analyzing Sanchezs views is an excellent test of Foleys interpretation because Sanchezs use of the category of whiteness was sophisticated, deliberate, reflective, and connected to issues and events. An internationalist, multiculturalist, and integrationist ideology shaped by New Deal experiences in the American Southwest, the American South, and Latin America informed George L Sanchezs civil rights activism and scholarship. Sanchez regarded Mexican Americans as one of many American minority groups suffering racial, ethnic, and religious bigotry. Though Sanchez regarded Mexican Americans racial status as white, he also held that they were a minority group that experienced systematic and racialized oppression. Sanchezs articulation of whiteness was qualified by an anti-racist ideological worldview and supports Eric Amesens criticism of overreaching by whiteness scholars who appreciate neither ambiguity nor counter-discourses of race, the recognition of which would cast doubt on their bold claims. Â ° Sanchez was very much a New Deal service intellectual who utilized academic research in an attempt to progressively transform society. The term service intellectual is an appropriate description of Sanchez, who propagated his civil rights activism through academic research with governmental agencies (the Texas State Department of Education, the New Mexico State Department of Education, the U. S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs) and national philanthropic organizations (the General Education Board, the Julius Rosenwald Eund, the Carnegie Foundation, and the Marshall Civil Liberties Trust). The pinnacle of Sanchezs scholarly contribution as a service intellectual was his evocative 1940 portrayal of rural New Mexican poverty and segregation in The Forgotten People: A Study of New Mexicans. Foley, Becoming Hispanic, 53-70 (quotation on p. 65); Foley, Partly Colored or Other White: Mexican Americans and Their Problem with the Color Line, in Stephanie Cole and Alison M. Parker, eds. , Beyond Black and White: Race, Ethnicity, and Gender in the U. S. South and Southwest (College Station, Tex. , 2004), 123-44. For an older whiteness study that discusses the external imposition of racial concepts on Mexican Americans and other groups, see Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness, chap. 10. Amesen, Whiteness and the Historians Imagination, 24. Richard S. Kirkendall, Social Scientists and Farm Politics in the Age of Roosevelt WHITENESS AND MEXICAN AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS 575 Sanchez particularly sought to transform society through the field of education. In the early 1930s he published blistering critiques of the shoddiness of IQ tests conducted on Mexican American children. Mexican Americans bad just challenged separate schools in Texas and California and were told by the courts that because they were technically white, racial segregation was illegal; however, the courts then claimed that pedagogical segregation based upon intellectual or linguistic deficiency was permissible. In challenging racist IQ science, Sanchez essentially advocated integration. ^ A decade of service intellectual work came together for Sanchez in Forgotten People. He called for a comprehensive federal and state program to uplift downtrodden Hispanic New Mexicans: Remedial measures will not solve the problem piecemeal. Poverty, illiteracy, and ill-health are merely symptoms. If education is to get at the root of the problem schools must go beyond subject-matter instruction. . . . The curriculum of the educational agencies becomes, then, the magna carta of social and economic rehabilitation; the teacher, the advance agent of a new social order. ^ Sanchez regarded Mexican Americans as similar to Japanese Americans, Jewish Americans, and African Americans. To Sanchez these were all minority groups that endured varying levels of discrimination by white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant America. Sanchez was uninterested in divining a hierarchy of racial victimization; instead, he spent considerable energy on pondering ways for these groups to get the federal government, in New Deal fashion, to help alleviate their plight. Even in the mid-1960s when many Mexican Americans had come to favor a separate racial identity over an ethnic one, Sanchez still conceived of Mexican Americans as a cultural group, ignoring concepts of race altogether unless discussing racial discrimination. ^ Sanchez engaged the struggles of other minority groups and linked them to Mexican American activism. In 1948, for example, Sanchez (Columbia, Mo. , 1966), 1-6; George I. Sanchez, Forgotten People: A Study of New Mexicans (1940; reprint, Albuquerque, 1996), xvi-xvii. Befitting the service intellectual ideal of freely diffusing knowledge, the Carnegie Foundation gave the book away. Carnegie provided four thousand dollars for Sanchezs research at the same time it supported work on a much larger study on African Americans—Gunnar Myrdals classic An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944). ^ Carlos Kevin Blanton, From Intellectual Deficiency to Cultural Deficiency: Mexican Americans, Testing, and Public School Policy in the American Southwest, 1920-1940, Pacific Historical Review, 72 (February 2003), 56-61 (quotations on p. 60). Sanchez, Forgotten People, 86. George I. Sanchez, History, Culture, and Education, in Julian Samora, ed.. La Raza: Forgotten Americans (Notre Dame, 1966), 1-26; Mario Garcia, Mexican Americans, 267-68. 576 THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY published through the United States Indian Service a government study on Navajo problems called The People: A Study of the Navajos. ^^ In 1937-1938 Sanchez transferred his New Deal, reformist ideology across borders as a Latin American education expert with a prestigious administrative post in Venezuelas national government. Writing to Edwin R. Embree, director of the Julius Rosenwald Fund, Sanchez described his work as the chief coordinator of the countrys teachertraining program in familiar New Deal terms: the hardest task is breaking down social prejudices, traditional apathy, obstructive habits (political and personal) and in-bred aimlessness. His first program report was appropriately titled Release from Tyranny. ^ During World War II Sanchez was appointed to the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs under Nelson A. Rockefeller, where he continued work on Latin American teacher-training programs as part of the war effort. Sanchez was deeply committed to progressive reform in Latin America that would lift educational and living standards. ^ Sanchez also took on African American issues. From 1935 to 1937 he worked as a staff member with the Chicago-based Julius Rosenwald Eund. This philanthropic organization was concerned with African American rural education in the South, and in this capacity Sanchez collaborated with Eisk Universitys future president, the eminent sociologist Charles S. Johnson, on preparing the massive Compendium on Southem Rural Life. Sanchez was listed in the studys budget as the highest-paid researcher for the 1936-1937 academic year with a $4,500 salary and a $2,000 travel budget. Sanchezs work with the Rosenwald Eund also involved numerous activities beyond his role as the groups pedagogical expert. In November and December 1936 he lobbied the Louisiana State Department of Education on behalf of a Dr. Sanchez Seeks Fulfillment of U. S. Promise to Navajos, Austin Daily Texan, November 16, 1946, in George I. Sanchez Vertical File (Center for American History, Austin, Texas; hereinafter this collection will be cited as Sanchez Vertical File and this repository as Center for American History); George I. Sanchez, The People: A Study of the Navajos ([Washington, D. C], 1948). ^ G. I. Sanchez to Edwin R. Embree, October 17, 1937, Folder 4, Box 127, Julius Rosenwald Fund Archives (Special Collections, John Hope and Aurelia Franklin Library, Fisk University, Nashville, Tennessee; hereinafter this collection will be cited as Rosenwald Fund Archives and this repository as Franklin Library) (quotation); Embree to Sanchez, October 29, 1937, ibid. Sanchezs work for the Instituto Pedagogico occurred just after its creation in 1936 during a brief liberal phase of Venezuelan politics. For more on its creation, see Judith Ewell, Venezuela: A Century of Change (Stanford, 1984), 75. Dave Cheavens, Soft-Spoken UT Professor Loaned to Coordinator of Latin-American Affairs, Austin Statesman, December 3, 1943, in Sanchez Vertical File; Texan Will Direct Training of Teachers, Dallas Morning News, November 3, 1943, ibid. ; George I. Sanchez, Mexican Education As It Looks Today, Nations Schools, 32 (September 1943), 23, ibid. ; George I. Sanchez, Mexico: A Revolution by Education (New York, 1936). WHITENESS AND MEXICAN AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS 511 Rosenwald teacher-training program and the broader issue of school equalization. Equalization had been the primary avenue of African American activism that culminated with the Gaines v. Canada decision of 1938, which mandated that the University of Missouri either admit a black law student or create a separate, equal law school for African Americans. Sanchez also lobbied in Washington, D. C. , in February 1937, consulting with the Progressive Education Association and various government agencies on Rosenwald projects. ^ As one of his duties on the compendium project, Sanchez studied rote learning for rural African American children who lived in homes lacking in formal education. This study was inspired by Charles Johnsons mentor at the University of Chicago, Robert E. Park. Johnson, Sanchez, and other young researchers such as famed historian Horace Mann Bond were to look at ways to educate populations handicapped by the lack of books and a tradition of formal education in the home. This venture was affiliated with the Tennessee Valley Authority and chiefly concerned with raising the cultural level of poor, rural African Americans more effectively than standard textbooks and pedagogies developed for privileged students in other parts of the country. The project aimed to equip teachers to integrate the knowledge which the school seeks to inculcate with the experiences of its pupils and with the tradition of the local community. Sanchezs comparable work with bilingual education in New Mexico and Latin America fit well within the scope of the new undertaking. ^ Sanchezs biggest project with the Rosenwald Fund was creating a well-recognized teacher-training program at the Louisiana Negro Normal and Industrial Institute at Grambling. Charles S. Johnson later described this Grambling teacher-training program as among the most progressive of the community-centered programs for the education of teachers in the country. He praised the Grambling endeavor for offering African American teachers opportunities for the development of creativeness and inventiveness in recognizing and solving * Charles S. Johnson to Edwin R. Embree, October 16, 1936, Folder 1, Box 333, Rosenwald Fund Archives; Embree to Johnson, October 23, 1936, and enclosed budget manuscripts Supplementary Budget on Rural Education Compendium and Rural School Exploration, Tentative Budget 1936-37, ibid. ; undated project time sheet [October 7, 1936 to April 27, 1937], Folder 3, Box 127, ibid. ; Numan V. Bartley, The New South, 1945-1980 (Baton Rouge, 1995), 15; Compendium on Southern Rural Life with Reference to the Problems of the Common School (9 vols. ; [Chicago? ], 1936). Charles S. Johnson to Edwin R. Embree, January 21, February 25, 1937, Folder 5, Box 335, Rosenwald Fund Archives; Johnson to Dorothy Elvidge, June 23, 1937, and study proposal by Robert E. Park, Memorandum on Rote Learning Studies, March 3, 1937, pp. 2 (first and second quotations), 3 (third quotation), ibid. Sanchez left shortly after the project began. 578 THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY the problems to be found in rural communities, homes, and schools . . . .^Â ° Sanchez oversaw this project from its inception in September 1936 until he left for Venezuela in the middle of 1937. He set up the curriculum, the budgets, the specialized staff (nurses, agricultural instructors, home economists, and rural school supervisors), and equipment (the laboratory school and a bus for inspections). These duties involved close coordination with Grambling administrators, Louisiana health officials, and state education and agriculture bureaucrats. Difficulties arose due to Sanchezs departure. One Rosenwald employee summarized the programs problems, As long as George [Sanchez] was here he was the individual who translated that philosophy to the people at Grambling, and I am sure that you agree with me that he could do it far more effectively than the rest of us. But now that Sanchez [sic] is not here it is the job of the president of the institution to do both this interpretation and this stimulation. . . . I do not believe [President] Jones knows them. ^ Fisks Charles S. Johnson was elite company for Sanchez. Johnsons devastating attacks on southem sharecropping influenced public policy and garnered praise from President Franklin D. Roosevelt. He and others spurred the creation of Roosevelts Black Cabinet. ^^ Sanchez practiced a similar combination of academic research and social activism. When he began his work at Grambling he had recently lost his position in the New Mexico State Department of Education due to his pointed advocacy of reform as well as his penchant for hard-hitting, publicly funded academic research on controversial topics such as the segregation of Mexican Americans in schools. He had long sparked controversy with his research on racial issues. What especially limited ^Â ° Charles S. Johnson, Section 8—The Negro Public Schools, in Louisiana Educational Survey (7 vols, in 8; Baton Rouge, 1942), IV, 216 (first quotation), 185 (second quotation). A copy of this volume is in Folder 5, Box 182, Charles Spurgeon Johnson Papers (Franklin Library). ^ A. C. Lewis to G. I. Sanchez, October 14, 1936, Folder 13, Box 207, Rosenwald Fund Archives; Sanchez to Dr. R. W. Todd, September 28, 1936, ibid. \ Sanchez to Miss Clyde Mobley, September 28, 1936, ibid. ; Sanchez to J. W. Bateman, September 28, 1936, ibid. \ Sanchez to Lewis, September 28, 1936, ibid. ; Edwin R. Embree to Lewis, September 29, 1936, ibid. ; Sanchez to Lewis, September 30, 1936, ibid. ; Dorothy A. Elvidge to Lewis, November 27, 1936, ibid. ; Lewis to Sanchez, July 9, 1937, Folder 14, Box 207, ibid.; i. C. Dixon to Lewis, March 17, 1938, Folder 15, Box 207, ibid, (quotation on p. 2); Sanchez, The Rural Normal Schools TeacherEducation Program Involves . . . , September 17, 1936, Folder 16, Box 207, ibid. ; Sanchez, Suggested Budget—Grambling, April 9, 1937, ibid. ; Sanchez, Recommendations, December 9, 1936, ibid. ^^ John Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South (New York, 1994), 91-92; George Brown Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, ? 913-1945 (Baton Rouge, 1967), 543, 544 (quotation); Matthew William Dunne, Next Steps: Charles S. Johnson and Southem Liberalism, Journal of Negro History, 83 (Winter 1998), 10-11. WHITENESS AND MEXICAN AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS 579 Sanchezs future in New Mexico was a 1933 furor over his distribution of another scholars Thurstone scale (a psychometric technique developed in the 1920s) on racial attitudes to pupils in New Mexicos public schools. Governor Arthur Seligman publicly demanded that Sanchez be ousted and that the General Education Board (GEB) cancel the grant funding his position in the state bureaucracy. Partly due to the influence of New Mexicos U. S. senator Bronson Cutting, a progressive Republican champion of Mexican Americans, Sanchez survived an ugly public hearing that resulted in the resignation of the University of New Mexico faculty member who devised the scale. Nevertheless, the incident severely constrained Sanchezs future in the New Mexican educational and political arena. ^^ But Sanchez was not pushed into African American education simply out of desperation for employment. He appreciated the opportunities that the Rosenwald Fund provided to broaden his activism as a service intellectual beyond the Southwest. He was direct about this to his most ardent supporter. President James F. Zimmerman of the University of New Mexico: Im sorry the [Rosenwald] Fund is virtually prohibited from extending its interests and experiments into the Southwest. This is the only disappointment I feel in connection with my present work. I feel it keenly, however, as you know how deeply I am bound up with that area and its peoples. At the same time, though, being here has given me a wider viewpoint and experience that may well be directed at my first love sometime. Zimmerman was disappointed; he had groomed Sanchez for a faculty and administrative future at the University of New Mexico. Despite the uproar in 1933 Sanchezs talents were in high demand, however, as GEB agent Leo Favrot and Rosenwald director Edwin Embree coordinated which agency would carry Sanchezs salary with the New Mexico State Department of Education in early 1935 (GEB) and during a yearlong research project on Mexican higher education from 1935 to the middle of 1936 (Rosenwald Fund) until he joined the staff of the Rosenwald Fund on a full-time basis for his work at Grambling. ^* ^^ G. I. Sanchez to Leo M. Favrot, April 27 and May 11, 1933, Folder 900, Box 100, G.